South and Southeast Asia before 1200
Chapter 15 focuses on the art and architecture of various
cultures in South and Southeast Asia, beginning with the Indus Civilization
(ca. 2600-1500 BCE), one of the world’s earliest. Though little Indus art has
survived, it does show stylistic similarities with Mesopotamian art, the result
of trade between cities of both cultures. Art of the Maurya Dynasty (323-185
BCE) reflects the prevalence of Buddhism, a religion established in the 6th
century BCE, and during this period the Maurya ruler Ashoka built the original
Great Stupa at Sanchi. During the Shunga, Andhra, and Kushan Dynasties (ca. 185
BCE-320 CE), Buddhist iconography is further established, and the first
representation of the Buddha in human form is produced. Buddhist and Hindu art
and architecture characterize the Gupta and Post-Gupta Periods of ca. 320-647.
In the Medieval Period (7th to 12th centuries), regional
styles of Hindu religious architecture develop in South Asia, while in Southeast
Asia, distinctive monuments such as the temples at Angkor in Cambodia are
constructed.
Late Medieval Italy
Surveys art and architecture in Italy in the 13th
and 14th centuries, a period that witnessed great changes in modes
of representation in sculpture and painting. Artists in the 13th
century such as Cimabue work in the Italo-Byzantine style, characterized by a
flattening of representational space and less naturalistic, more schematic
renderings of figures. In the 14th century, Giotto is recognized for
painting scenes and figures based on observations of the natural world. His
naturalism is seen as a return to the classical manner, which had been nearly
abandoned in the Middle Ages. Giotto is recognized as the first Renaissance
artist, his work signaling the rebirth of Greco-Roman naturalism, the emphasis on
empirical knowledge, and the development of humanism that are the hallmarks of
the Italian art and culture in the 15th and 16th
centuries.
Gothic Europe
“Gothic” was originally a disparaging term applied to
medieval art and architecture by Italians in the 16th century, who
considered it crude. In actuality, the art produced in the high middle ages,
between 1140 and 1500, is highly original, expressive and technically
innovative. The finest achievement of the era is the Gothic cathedral,
epitomized by the Cathedral of Notre Dame in Chartres, France. Here we find the
characteristic features that set Gothic cathedrals apart from earlier
buildings: pointed arches, masonry rib vaults, flying buttresses, and brilliant
colored-glass windows. The Gothic cathedrals in England are less vertical than
their French counterparts, but English builders pursued unique decorative
features such as fan vaults and pendants. In the Holy Roman Empire, German
sculptors continued to employ the heightened emotionalism that had been
established in Ottonian art. Throughout Europe, artists in the Gothic era also
produced remarkable examples of metalwork, relief sculptures, and manuscript
illumination that illustrate Christian themes and increasingly include
representations of secular figures.
Romanesque Europe
The Romanesque era, ca. 1050 to 1200, takes its name from an
artistic style. Historians described much of the architecture produced in this
period as “Romanesque,” or Roman-like, for its use of rounded arches and vaults
similar to those found in Roman structures. This chapter surveys the art and
artwork of the period and considers the traditions that developed in four
different regions of Europe in this period. France and Spain saw the
construction of numerous pilgrimage churches with monumental stone relief
sculpture. In the Holy Roman Empire, which spanned the territory of present-day
Germany and northern Italy, architects built innovative churches and employed
groin vaults in naves, while artists made exquisite metalwork such as
reliquaries. Romanesque architecture in Italy is distinct in style and
structure, characterized by colored marble paneling, timber roofs, and
freestanding campaniles and baptisteries. In Normandy and England, architects
employed rib groin vaults over a three-story nave; and artists embroidered the Bayeux Tapestry, an example of
historical narrative art that chronicles the conquest of England in 1066 by
Duke William of Normandy.
Early Medieval Europe
This chapter surveys the art of Europe in the period
between 410, the Fall of Rome, and 1024, the conclusion of the Ottonion period.
The art of the medieval period is the result of a mix of three primary cultural
influences: the classical traditions of Rome’s northern provinces, the
practices of non-Roman people in central and northern Europe, and Christianity.
From the 5th to the middle of the 8th century—the period
of the “warrior lords”—surviving artworks are primarily portable objects such
as weapons and items of personal adornment that reflect the decorative
traditions of non-Roman groups such as the Huns, Merovingians, Franks, Goths,
and Vikings. Between the 7th and 11th centuries most of
Europe became Christianized, but the decorative abstract patterns and
intertwining animal forms established in pre-Christian times continue to appear
in art throughout the Early Middle Ages. This is particularly the case with
Hiberno-Saxon artists in Ireland and Britain, who produced elaborately
decorated Christian illuminated manuscripts in the 7th and 8th
centuries. In the Carolingian period (768-877) in central Europe, artists
developed unique styles of manuscript illumination and established the
twin-tower westwork of church architecture. 10th century Ottonion
artists revived the art of monumental sculpture and produced small-scale works
exhibiting clear Byzantine influence, while architects introduced the
alternate-support system and galleries to the naves of basilicas.
Islamic World
The religion of Islam arose early in the seventh
century. From the Arabian peninsula where Islam was established, Muslim rule
spread swiftly to Syria, Palestine, Iraq, and Lower Egypt. By 710, all of North
Africa was under Islamic control. In the following centuries Islamic rule was
established in southern Spain, and in the East, Muslim armies gradually eroded
Byzantine strongholds. The collapse of the Byzantine Empire occurred when the
Ottoman Turks invaded Constantinople in 1453. Islam, one of the world’s great
religions, is centered around the 6th century Prophet Muhammed,
whose revelations are written in the Koran, the sacred book of Islam.
Throughout its history, Arab thinkers have made significant contributions to
world literature, philosophy, science, and mathematics. The art of the Islamic
world is particularly rich, with refined traditions in mosque architecture,
luxury arts such as carving and metalwork, illustrated books. Chapter 10 surveys the art and architecture
of the Islamic world from its early period in the 7th century,
through the 16th century, the height of the Ottoman dynasty
Byzantium
In 324, Constantine founded Constantinople (modern Istanbul,
Turkey) on the site of ancient Byzantium. With the subsequent division of the
Roman Empire into eastern and western centers, the city became the capital of
the Eastern Christian, or Byzantine Empire. Byzantine art is divided into three
periods: Early Byzantine (324-726), Middle Byzantine (843-1204), and Late
Byzantine (1261-1453). The art and architecture of Byzantium glorified its
emperors and gave visual form to the Orthodox Christian doctrine, which became
the official religion of the realm under the Emperor Justinian. Though
countless Early Byzantine artworks were destroyed in the era of iconoclasm
(726-843), Middle Byzantine art marks a golden age after iconoclasm’s repeal.
In the paintings and sculpture, Byzantine artists carry on classical
traditions, but their depictions lack the naturalism and illusionism one sees
in the art of Ancient Rome. Orthodox church architecture incorporates forms
established in Rome, though Byzantine architects favored Greek-cross plans. A
hallmark of Byzantine architecture is the construction of the dome set on
pendentives, the most spectacular example of which is to be seen in the Hagia
Sophia (532-537) in Constantinople. The Byzantine Empire falls when the Ottoman
Turks seize Constantinople in 1453, and many of its churches, including the
Hagia Sophia, are converted to mosques.
Late Antiquity
Art and architecture produced in
the Late Antique world between 192 and 526 CE, both before and after the reign
of the Roman Emperor Constantine, by Jewish and Christian people. The artworks
reflect their evolving cultural and religious practices, and include paintings,
sculpture, early examples of illuminated manuscripts, and structures of
worship. The artworks of this period are Roman in style and technique, but they
differ in subject and often in function, and they form the foundation of art
and architecture in the Middle Ages.
Roman Empire
The Roman Empire was the most expansive and powerful of the
ancient world, and its cultural productions, architectural forms, social and
legal structures, and language has indelibly marked the Western world as we
know it today. The empire dates from 753, with the establishment of the city of
Rome in Italy. The early monarchy gave rise to the Roman Republic, established
in 509 BCE. The early Roman Empire dates to 27 BCE and the rule of Augustus,
followed by the High Empire of 96-192 CE. The Late Empire, 193-337 CE, came to
an end when Constantine, the first Christian emperor, moved the capital of the
Empire from Rome to Constantinople. At its height, the Roman Empire spanned
three continents, and its former territory is marked by monumental works of
art, architecture, and engineering still visible today. Roman sculptors were
avid followers of the Ancient Greeks, though they developed a distinctive
realist style. Early Roman architecture blended forms from the Etruscans and
the Greeks, but the Romans were above all architectural innovators, using
concrete on a monumental scale, exploiting the structural possibilities of the
arch, vault, and dome, and developing building types such as the basilica and
amphitheater.
Etruscans
The people were happy. This is the underlying cause of the astounding length of time and space that the Roman Empire occupied most of the known western land. Great rulers met their downfall when they put their own status in front of the well being of the people they govern. When the citizens are left high and dry and not regarded as important to their society then this is when there is an overthrow of power and a new ruler comes into play. Citizens had a place in politics, they have lots of entertainment, they had the best army in the world to protect them, and Rome was the place to live and would be that way for many years.
Many leaders come and go but it is the great ones that we remember, the ones that make people enjoy life. The emperors that are not approved by the people are the ones that turn a new leaf of evil once they have a military victory. The thrill of so much power gives them the urge to be the best in the world. They move on and conquer other nations and forget about their own people. Julius Caesar cared about his people and wanted to be the "ruler for the people," rather than the "ruler of the people." When he gain power of Rome from the hands of Pompey there was no reign of terror, but a policy to restore economic and prosperity to Rome. This period of time in Rome is known today as the golden age of Roman literacy and development. The minds of the people are expanding. Another example of the Roman citizens' happiness and prosperity comes during the rule of Caesar's grandson Octavian, better known to history as Augustus.
Once Augustus rises from the new triumvirate as the ruler of the empire, he introduces different types of social inform that appease the people and keep them on his side. Augustus is a classical man and wanted to bring back the ancient moral to the citizens. He reduced the size of the army and gave soldiers land and money. He imports food and gives it away to the people. Augustus transformed Rome from city of bricks to a city of marble by building temples and basilicas to represent his power as well as his love for the city that he takes care of. At this time people could see that society was prospering and times were great due to a great leader.
Chapter 5 Ancient Greece
Ancient Greek culture forms the cornerstone of Western cultural tradition. Though the ancient Greeks inherited some practices and forms from Egypt and Mesopotamia, they developed a distinct artistic and architectural identity that had profound impact on every Western culture since their time. Ancient Greek culture spans from ca. 900 BCE to ca. 30 BCE, and is divided into period the Geometric and the Archaic, the Early and High Classical, the Late Classical, and the Hellenistic marked by the development and refinement of artistic styles and architectural form. The ancient Greeks excelled at vase painting and produced highly refined sculptures, but among the greatest Ancient Greek achievements is the perfection of the temple form, exemplified in the Parthenon, the High Classical-period temple dedicated to Athena on the Acropolis in Athens. The Hellenistic Period witnesses a transforming cultural sensibility in Greece, one marked by influence from Eastern cultures as well as an increased freedom of expression. The Roman Empire is in its ascendency by the end of the Hellenistic Period in 30 BCE, and its art and architecture reflect the profound influence of Greek culture.
Chapter 4 The Prehistoric Aegean
This chapter surveys the art and architecture of cultures
that thrived in Greece two millennia before the birth of Homer, the poet who
immortalized them in the Iliad (ca.
750 BCE). Artworks from the Prehistoric Aegean civilizations include Early
Cycladic marble figurines from ca. 3000 BCE; Minoan palaces on Crete,
constructed beginning ca. 1700 BCE; and the deep shaft graves, funerary
objects, fortified citadels and monumental sculptures built by the Mycenaeans ca.
1600-1200 BCE. Homer’s writings were thought to be pure poetic fiction until
the 19th century, when archaeologists discovered ruins of cities
such as Troy and Knossos. The artworks subsequently unearthed at sites
throughout the Aegean provide evidence of the rich cultures and artistic
productions that preceded those of Ancient Greece.
Chapter 3 Egypt under the pharaohs
The palette of king Namer was the basic principles of the Egyptian representational art for 3,000 years .
On the palette it had represented pharaohs. Still to this day many historian cannot pin point the time they served. The ancient cultures established along the Nile River in Egypt between 3500 BCE and 30 BCE were characterized by complex social organizations under the leadership of Pharaohs. Much of their art and architecture was produced to honor these rulers, who were thought to be divine, as well as the gods in the Egyptian pantheon, the most important of which were Amen, the supreme god, and Re, god of the sun. Ancient Egyptian culture is divided into periods according to dynastic rule: the Predynastic and Early Dynastic period the Old Kingdom ,the Middle Kingdom ,the New Kingdom ,and the final period, the First Millennium which Egypt came increasingly under foreign rule. The early 19th century discovery of the Rosetta Stone, a kind of translator’s tablet, allowed scholars to read Egyptian hieroglyphics, linguistic symbols included on many works of Egyptian art and architecture. Among the most significant of these are the Great Pyramids at Gizeh, constructed during the Old Kingdom; Middle Kingdom rock cut tombs ,and enormous New Kingdom Temple of Amen-Re at Karnak. With notable exceptions, the stylistic features of Egyptian painting and sculpture evolved slowly, remaining remarkably consistent through three millennia.
